1. Use as much as you can. It's a convenient way to maximize code reuse with very few keystrokes. Actually, this answer is seldom explicitly given, but if I judge by the code I see, this is a wide-spread opinion.
2. There are situations when inheritance is appropriate, and situations when it isn't. Namely, inheritance is appropriate to express IS-A relationships.
3. Never use it for the purpose of code reuse. Some take it even further and say never use it at all. Inheritance is flawed by design.
Throughout my life as a programmer, I have gone through all of these stages, in order. I think most of the controversy focuses on inheritance for the purpose of code reuse, and I'll start with that.
Inheritance for the purpose of code reuse
The first answer is easy to discard, as explained in this answer on the programmers stackexchange. Systematically using inheritance quickly leads to excessively large objects. The author of the code probably won't see this as a problem at first, and may indeed be oblivious to the problem. Unfortunately, this makes it very easy to fall into this trap.
The second answer begs for an answer to the question "what is an IS-A relationship?". I find that all IS-A relationships can be expressed as HAS-A, and vice-versa. Taking the usual example of cars, we can say a car has four wheels, and it is a four-wheeled vehicle. A car has an engine, and it is an engine-powered vehicle. Which is the correct way of expressing relationships between cars and their components?
Instead of relying on IS-A vs HAS-A, one can use the Liskov Substitution Principle (LSP), as pointed out in this other answer.
Informally, the principle states that if B inherits from A, then B must be usable in all places where A is used.
This is a bit of a loose definition, and even the more formal definition by Barbara Liskov and Jeanette Wing stated below invites further questions.
Let q(x) be a property provable about objects x of type T. Then q(y) should be provable for objects y of type S where S is a subtype of T.
What is the proof system assumed here? What kind of sentences can be expressed? Do the axioms include knowledge about the program?
Informally, how should "usable" be interpreted in the informal statement of the principle?
I don't think there is a single fit-all answer to this question. There are a number of aspects to consider, which all affect the initial development time and degree of maintainability of a software project.
Language Semantics.
Note that a language which allows to query the concrete type of an object makes it impossible to meet the LSP.
let f (x : A) =
match x with
| :? B -> failwith "Failing!"
| _ -> x.DoSomething()
Obviously, an instance of B cannot be used with f, as it would cause the program to behave differently as when provided with instances of A (or some other subtype of A).
Notion of equivalence.
That instances of B can be used instead of A means that the behavior of the software when B is used is "observably equivalent" to that of the software when A is used.
There are different levels of strictness regarding equivalence. Including internal state in the observable behavior is a bad idea, as this forbids method overriding and polymorphism.
Even limiting oneself to "user-visible events" may be too limiting, as this closes the door to plug-ins that extend or modify functionality.
In the end, I think a popular but very weak notion is whether the program crashes or not. And even that may be too strong, as it's probably acceptable for instances of B to work where instances of A crash (OK, that's nit-picking).
Scope.
Does "all places where A is used" refer to the places as they exist in the current form of the software, in the current and expected future forms, or in all possible forms?
There is a bit of overlap with the first aspect. When assuming the scope is limited to the current state, and if no concrete type tests on instances of A are made anywhere, then meeting the LSP seems feasible.
Assuming the second alternative (current and expected future forms) requires either a clear idea of what the future looks like, or a coding standard prohibiting the use of all language constructs potentially incompatible with the LSP.
If you are designing a library or framework to be used by other parties you don't control, you are condemned to the last option, "all possible forms". Unless you have a low level of ambition on the notion of equivalence, the LSP is impossible to meet in this setting.
There may well be other aspects I haven't thought of, but I hope I made it clear that the LSP isn't quite as simple as it may seem at a first glance. Using inheritance only "when it conforms to the LSP" often equates to "never" if one really cares about the LSP. Moreover, it requires an understanding of the principle itself as well as clearly identifiable decisions on all the points mentioned above, two conditions which are not met that often out-there-in-the-real-world.
Note that it's possible and indeed desirable to specify limitations on language features, equivalence and scope on a per-type basis. Doing it on a project-wide level would probably make it impossible to respect the LSP.
Inheritance limited to interfaces
My standing on the question of inheritance when limited to interfaces is not quite clear yet. I can't quite put my finger on the exact problem yet, so I'll leave it to another day to express my thoughts in details on the subject.
Shortly, it seems to me this kind of inheritance brings little, if anything at all, over composition. The argument of the "keystroke minimality" applies only to subtyping between interfaces, which I have had little practical use for so far.
Alternatives to inheritance
Composition is often cited as the right way to take advantage of code reuse. To put it mildly, mentioning it often fails to trigger the enthusiasm of proponents of inheritance for code reuse. It's easy to understand why:
type A = ... member this.DoSomething1() = ... ... member this.DoSomething15() = ... type OhForGodsSake_B = let an_a : A = ... member this.DoSomething1() = an_a.DoSomething1() ... member this.DoSomething15() = an_a.DoSomething15() type WhatABreeze_B() = inherit A()
Indeed, there is something to be said for the second approach. I wish F# had some way to achieve the conciseness of inheritance through composition, but that's not the case. This may be an oversight, or may be by design. As Matthieu M. writes in his answer, forcing verbosity can be beneficial:
[It] means that at least a couple keystrokes are needed for each method, and suddenly people begin to think about whether or not it's such a great idea to reuse this "fat" class for just a small piece of it.
I would add that this would also force the author of B to think about whether all 15 DoSomething() methods really are needed in B, or if it's enough to provide just a few of them.
By the way, should the methods in B have the same name as their counter-parts in A? If A is "VehicleWithWeels", and "B" is "Airplane", it makes sense to expose "VehicleWithWeels.Brake" as "Airplane.BrakeWithWheels", as airplanes have different means of braking. It's easy to miss that subtle point when using inheritance.
All-in-all, I don't think I should value my laziness and comfort over cleaner code, at least not in a professional setting. Still, I can't help being lazy... Programming isn't all about writing clean code, it's about having fun too.
When dealing with implementation relationships between concrete types and interfaces, I am happy with seeing it as "HAS-A" kind of relationship, or more precisely (and verbosely) "OFFERS-FUNCTIONALITY-AS-SPECIFIED-BY-INTERFACE". This can be achieved in two ways in F#:
// Explicit implementation
type B1 =
...
interface A with
method this.DoSomething() = ...
// Composition using object expressions
type B2 =
...
member this.AsA() =
{ new A with
member x.DoSomething() = ... // Note "x" vs "this". "this" refers to B2.
}
The first approach can be used when it's clear B1 can only provide A in one single sensible way at all times, the second approach is more general and flexible. One might wonder if the second approach shouldn't always be preferred. Where do extremes end? ;)
